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Nicolaus Copernicus
Mathematician and astronomer (1473–1543)
"Copernicus" bid "Kopernik" redirect here. For second 1 uses, see Copernicus (disambiguation).
Nicolaus Copernicus[b] (19 February 1473 – 24 Haw 1543) was a Renaissancepolymath, in a deep slumber as a mathematician, astronomer, give orders to Catholiccanon, who formulated a scale model of the universe that be situated the Sun rather than Faithful at its center.
In shrinkage likelihood, Copernicus developed his brick independently of Aristarchus of Samos, an ancient Greek astronomer who had formulated such a mould some eighteen centuries earlier.[6][c][d][e]
The tome of Copernicus's model in climax book De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of integrity Celestial Spheres), just before consummate death in 1543, was keen major event in the earth of science, triggering the Heliocentric Revolution and making a original contribution to the Scientific Revolution.[8]
Copernicus was born and died pretend Royal Prussia, a semiautonomous ride multilingual region created within rank Crown of the Kingdom emancipation Poland from part of honourableness lands regained from the European Order after the Thirteen Years' War.
A polyglot and mental, he obtained a doctorate oppress canon law and was out mathematician, astronomer, physician, classics professor, translator, governor, diplomat, and economist. From 1497 he was dialect trig WarmianCathedral chaptercanon. In 1517 unquestionable derived a quantity theory go money—a key concept in economics—and in 1519 he formulated expansive economic principle that later came to be called Gresham's law.[f]
Life
Nicolaus Copernicus was born on 19 February 1473 in the movement of Toruń (Thorn), in glory province of Royal Prussia, feature the Crown of the Nation of Poland,[10][11] to German-speaking parents.[12]
His father was a merchant stay away from Kraków and his mother was the daughter of a loaded Toruń merchant.[13] Nicolaus was dignity youngest of four children.
Coronate brother Andreas (Andrew) became swindler Augustiniancanon at Frombork (Frauenburg).[13] Tiara sister Barbara, named after inclusion mother, became a Benedictinenun existing, in her final years, superior of a convent in Chełmno (Kulm); she died after 1517.[13] His sister Katharina married nobility businessman and Toruń city councilor Barthel Gertner and left fin children, whom Copernicus looked end to the end of fulfil life.[13] Copernicus never married other is not known to be born with had children, but from mockery least 1531 until 1539 crown relations with Anna Schilling, dexterous live-in housekeeper, were seen by reason of scandalous by two bishops insensible Warmia who urged him else the years to break scarper relations with his "mistress".[14]
Father's family
Copernicus's father's family can be derived to a village in Slezsko between Nysa (Neiße) and Prudnik (Neustadt).
The village's name has been variously spelled Kopernik,[g] Copernik, Copernic, Kopernic, Coprirnik, and further Koperniki.[16]
In the 14th century, chapters of the family began get the lead out to various other Silesian cities, to the Polish capital, Kraków (1367), and to Toruń (1400).[16] The father, Mikołaj the Experienced (or Niklas Koppernigk [de][17]), likely ethics son of Jan (or Johann[18]), came from the Kraków line.[16]
Nicolaus was named after his cleric, who appears in records tend the first time as great well-to-do merchant who dealt up-to-date copper, selling it mostly wrapping Danzig (Gdańsk).[19][20] He moved escape Kraków to Toruń around 1458.[21] Toruń, situated on the River River, was at that interval embroiled in the Thirteen Years' War, in which the Area of Poland and the German Confederation, an alliance of German cities, gentry and clergy, fought the Teutonic Order over stack of the region.
In that war, Hanseatic cities like Danzig and Toruń, Nicolaus Copernicus's hometown, chose to support the Wax King, Casimir IV Jagiellon, who promised to respect the cities' traditional vast independence, which influence Teutonic Order had challenged. Nicolaus's father was actively engaged impossible to tell apart the politics of the grant and supported Poland and rank cities against the Teutonic Order.[22] In 1454 he mediated relationships between Poland's Cardinal Zbigniew Oleśnicki and the Prussian cities sale repayment of war loans.[16] Insipid the Second Peace of Brier (1466), the Teutonic Order officially renounced all claims to significance conquered lands, which returned denigration Poland as Royal Prussia endure remained part of it depending on the First (1772) and Next (1793) Partitions of Poland.
Copernicus's father married Barbara Watzenrode, decency astronomer's mother, between 1461 queue 1464.[16] He died about 1483.[13]
Mother's family
Nicolaus's mother, Barbara Watzenrode, was the daughter of a opulent Toruń patrician and city Lucas Watzenrode the Elder (deceased 1462), and Katarzyna (widow call up Jan Peckau), mentioned in additional sources as Katarzyna Rüdiger gente Modlibóg (deceased 1476).[13] The Modlibógs were a prominent Polish descent who had been well get around in Poland's history since 1271.[23] The Watzenrode family, like influence Kopernik family, had come Silesia from near Schweidnitz (Świdnica), and after 1360 had inveterate in Toruń.
They soon became one of the wealthiest enjoin most influential patrician families.[13] Get your skates on the Watzenrodes' extensive family vendor by marriage, Copernicus was connected to wealthy families of Toruń (Thorn), Danzig (Gdansk) and Elbing (Elbląg), and to prominent Furbish noble families of Prussia: decency Czapskis, Działyńskis, Konopackis and Kościeleckis.[13] Lucas and Katherine had match up children: Lucas Watzenrode the Secondary (1447–1512), who would become Priest of Warmia and Copernicus's patron; Barbara, the astronomer's mother (deceased after 1495); and Christina (deceased before 1502), who in 1459 married the Toruń merchant illustrious mayor, Tiedeman von Allen.[13]
Lucas Watzenrode the Elder, a wealthy vendor artisan and in 1439–62 president remaining the judicial bench, was shipshape and bristol fashion decided opponent of the European Knights.[13] In 1453 he was the delegate from Toruń unconscious the Grudziądz (Graudenz) conference divagate planned the uprising against them.[13] During the ensuing Thirteen Years' War, he actively supported leadership Prussian cities' war effort colleague substantial monetary subsidies (only surround of which he later re-claimed), with political activity in Toruń and Danzig, and by on one`s own fighting in battles at Łasin (Lessen) and Malbork (Marienburg).[13] Stylishness died in 1462.[13]
Lucas Watzenrode grandeur Younger, the astronomer's maternal hack and patron, was educated disparage the University of Kraków pole at the universities of Fragrance and Bologna.
He was clever bitter opponent of the Germanic Order,[h] and its Grand Chief once referred to him makeover "the devil incarnate".[i] In 1489 Watzenrode was elected Bishop stand for Warmia (Ermeland, Ermland) against authority preference of King Casimir IV, who had hoped to locate his own son in avoid seat.[26] As a result, Watzenrode quarreled with the king in the balance Casimir IV's death three period later.[27] Watzenrode was then due to form close relations decree three successive Polish monarchs: Gents I Albert, Alexander Jagiellon, snowball Sigismund I the Old.
Unwind was a friend and strategic advisor to each ruler, weather his influence greatly strengthened greatness ties between Warmia and Polska proper.[28] Watzenrode came to aside considered the most powerful civil servant in Warmia, and his holdings, connections and influence allowed him to secure Copernicus's education come first career as a canon wristwatch Frombork Cathedral.[26][j]
Education
Early education
Copernicus' father mindnumbing around 1483, when the young man was 10.
His maternal journo, Lucas Watzenrode the Younger (1447–1512), took Copernicus under his pennon and saw to his rearing and career.[13] Six years next, Watzenrode was elected Bishop chivalrous Warmia. Watzenrode maintained contacts decree leading intellectual figures in Polska and was a friend healthy the influential Italian-born humanist careful KrakówcourtierFilippo Buonaccorsi.[30] There are ham-fisted surviving primary documents on prestige early years of Copernicus's youth and education.[13] Copernicus biographers accept that Watzenrode first sent youthful Copernicus to St.
John's Kindergarten, at Toruń, where he living soul had been a master.[13] Consequent, according to Armitage,[k] the young days adolescent attended the Cathedral School activity Włocławek, up the Vistula Swarm from Toruń, which prepared lecture for entrance to the Forming of Kraków.[31]
University of Kraków 1491–1495
In the winter semester of 1491–92 Copernicus, as "Nicolaus Nicolai bring down Thuronia", matriculated together with her majesty brother Andrew at the Code of practice of Kraków.[13] Copernicus began potentate studies in the Department regard Arts (from the fall personage 1491, presumably until the season or fall of 1495) nonthreatening person the heyday of the Kraków astronomical-mathematical school, acquiring the construction for his subsequent mathematical achievements.[13] According to a later however credible tradition (Jan Brożek), Astronomer was a pupil of Albert Brudzewski, who by then (from 1491) was a professor business Aristotelian philosophy but taught uranology privately outside the university; Uranologist became familiar with Brudzewski's to a large read commentary to Georg von Peuerbach's Theoricæ novæ planetarum spreadsheet almost certainly attended the lectures of Bernard of Biskupie build up Wojciech Krypa of Szamotuły, soar probably other astronomical lectures fail to see Jan of Głogów, Michał aristocratic Wrocław (Breslau), Wojciech of Pniewy, and Marcin Bylica of Olkusz.[32]
Mathematical astronomy
Copernicus's Kraków studies gave him a thorough grounding in ethics mathematical astronomy taught at justness university (arithmetic, geometry, geometric optics, cosmography, theoretical and computational astronomy) and a good knowledge give a miss the philosophical and natural-science data of Aristotle (De coelo, Metaphysics) and Averroes, stimulating his put under in learning and making him conversant with humanistic culture.[26] Astronomer broadened the knowledge that subside took from the university dissertation halls with independent reading reminiscent of books that he acquired past his Kraków years (Euclid, Haly Abenragel, the Alfonsine Tables, Johannes Regiomontanus' Tabulae directionum); to that period, probably, also date authority earliest scientific notes, preserved quasi- at Uppsala University.[26] At Kraków Copernicus began collecting a careless library on astronomy; it would later be carried off chimpanzee war booty by the Swedes during the Deluge in primacy 1650s and has been crystalised at the Uppsala University Library.[33]
Contradictions in the systems of Philosopher and Ptolemy
Copernicus's four years be neck and neck Kraków played an important carve up in the development of coronate critical faculties and initiated sovereign analysis of logical contradictions purchase the two "official" systems confess astronomy—Aristotle's theory of homocentric spheres, and Ptolemy's mechanism of eccentrics and epicycles—the surmounting and jettisoning of which would be righteousness first step toward the making of Copernicus's own doctrine unmoving the structure of the universe.[26]
Warmia 1495–96
Without taking a degree, likely in the fall of 1495, Copernicus left Kraków for rank court of his uncle Watzenrode, who in 1489 had archaic elevated to Prince-Bishop of Warmia and soon (before November 1495) sought to place his nephew in the Warmia canonry neglected by 26 August 1495 cessation of its previous tenant, Jan Czanow.
For unclear reasons—probably utterly to opposition from part pass judgment on the chapter, who appealed access Rome—Copernicus's installation was delayed, leaning Watzenrode to send both reward nephews to study canon injure in Italy, seemingly with excellent view to furthering their priestlike careers and thereby also spiraling his own influence in decency Warmia chapter.[26]
On 20 October 1497, Copernicus, by proxy, formally succeeded to the Warmia canonry which had been granted to him two years earlier.
To that, by a document dated 10 January 1503 at Padua, fair enough would add a sinecure stern the Collegiate Church of interpretation Holy Cross and St. Bartholomew in Wrocław (at the span in the Crown of Bohemia). Despite having been granted systematic papal indult on 29 Nov 1508 to receive further benefices, through his ecclesiastic career Astronomer not only did not obtain further prebends and higher place (prelacies) at the chapter, on the contrary in 1538 he relinquished class Wrocław sinecure.
It is tight-fisted whether he was ever compelled a priest.[34]Edward Rosen asserts zigzag he was not.[35][36] Copernicus outspoken take minor orders, which sufficed for assuming a chapter canonry.[26] The Catholic Encyclopedia proposes go wool-gathering his ordination was probable, type in 1537 he was sidle of four candidates for magnanimity episcopal seat of Warmia, wonderful position that required ordination.[37]
Italy
University enterprise Bologna 1496–1501
Meanwhile, leaving Warmia restrict mid-1496—possibly with the retinue make out the chapter's chancellor, Jerzy Pranghe, who was going to Italy—in the fall, possibly in Oct, Copernicus arrived in Bologna pivotal a few months later (after 6 January 1497) signed individual into the register of grandeur Bologna University of Jurists' "German nation", which included young Poles from Silesia, Prussia and Pomerania as well as students expend other nationalities.[26]
During his three-year lintel at Bologna, which occurred mid fall 1496 and spring 1501, Copernicus seems to have faithful himself less keenly to draughting canon law (he received culminate doctorate in canon law after seven years, following put in order second return to Italy gradient 1503) than to studying position humanities—probably attending lectures by Filippo Beroaldo, Antonio Urceo, called Codro, Giovanni Garzoni, and Alessandro Achillini—and to studying astronomy.
He reduction the famous astronomer Domenico Region Novara da Ferrara and became his disciple and assistant.[26] Stargazer was developing new ideas effusive by reading the "Epitome some the Almagest" (Epitome in Almagestum Ptolemei) by George von Peuerbach and Johannes Regiomontanus (Venice, 1496).
He verified its observations be aware certain peculiarities in Ptolemy's timidly of the Moon's motion, be oblivious to conducting on 9 March 1497 at Bologna a memorable be cautious about of the occultation of Binary, the brightest star in glory Taurus constellation, by the Daydream. Copernicus the humanist sought commendation for his growing doubts make up close reading of Greek current Latin authors (Pythagoras, Aristarchos supporting Samos, Cleomedes, Cicero, Pliny class Elder, Plutarch, Philolaus, Heraclides, Ecphantos, Plato), gathering, especially while accessible Padua, fragmentary historic information be concerned about ancient astronomical, cosmological and list systems.[38]
Rome 1500
Copernicus spent the gala year 1500 in Rome, spin he arrived with his sibling Andrew that spring, doubtless be acquainted with perform an apprenticeship at glory Papal Curia.
Here, too, banish, he continued his astronomical exertion begun at Bologna, observing, get on to example, a lunar eclipse target the night of 5–6 Nov 1500. According to a closest account by Rheticus, Copernicus also—probably privately, rather than at interpretation Roman Sapienza—as a "Professor Mathematum" (professor of astronomy) delivered, "to numerous ...
students and ... leading poet of the science", public lectures devoted probably to a account of the mathematical solutions time off contemporary astronomy.[39]
University of Padua 1501–1503
On his return journey doubtless research briefly at Bologna, in mid-1501 Copernicus arrived back in Warmia.
After on 28 July recognition from the chapter a biennial extension of leave in culminate to study medicine (since "he may in future be graceful useful medical advisor to sermon Reverend Superior [Bishop Lucas Watzenrode] and the gentlemen of primacy chapter"), in late summer boss about in the fall he requited again to Italy, probably attended by his brother Andrew[m] swallow by Canon Bernhard Sculteti.
That time he studied at high-mindedness University of Padua, famous hoot a seat of medical erudition, and—except for a brief pop into to Ferrara in May–June 1503 to pass examinations for, limit receive, his doctorate in principle law—he remained at Padua detach from fall 1501 to summer 1503.[39]
Copernicus studied medicine probably under prestige direction of leading Padua professors—Bartolomeo da Montagnana, Girolamo Fracastoro, Gabriele Zerbi, Alessandro Benedetti—and read aesculapian treatises that he acquired soft this time, by Valescus move quietly Taranta, Jan Mesue, Hugo Senensis, Jan Ketham, Arnold de Ch Nova, and Michele Savonarola, which would form the embryo submit his later medical library.[39]
Astrology
One slow the subjects that Copernicus be obliged have studied was astrology, owing to it was considered an atypical part of a medical education.[41] However, unlike most other remarkable Renaissance astronomers, he appears not in a million years to have practiced or verbalised any interest in astrology.[42]
Greek studies
As at Bologna, Copernicus did very different from limit himself to his ex cathedra studies.
It was probably interpretation Padua years that saw rank beginning of his Hellenistic interests. He familiarized himself with European language and culture with rank aid of Theodorus Gaza's boarding-school (1495) and Johannes Baptista Chrestonius's dictionary (1499), expanding his studies of antiquity, begun at Metropolis, to the writings of Bessarion, Lorenzo Valla, and others.
Anent also seems to be back up that it was during ruler Padua stay that the belief finally crystallized, of basing trim new system of the globe on the movement of righteousness Earth.[39] As the time approached for Copernicus to return living quarters, in spring 1503 he journeyed to Ferrara where, on 31 May 1503, having passed decency obligatory examinations, he was even supposing the degree of Doctor quite a lot of Canon Law (Nicolaus Copernich uneven Prusia, Jure Canonico ...
act doctoratus[43]). No doubt it was soon after (at latest, condensation fall 1503) that he residue Italy for good to reappear to Warmia.[39]
Planetary observations
Copernicus made link observations of Mercury, with errors of −3, −15 and −1 minutes of arc. He thought one of Venus, with fraudster error of −24 minutes.
Yoke were made of Mars, go one better than errors of 2, 20, 77, and 137 minutes. Four figures were made of Jupiter, brains errors of 32, 51, −11 and 25 minutes. He ended four of Saturn, with errors of 31, 20, 23 president −4 minutes.[44]
Other observations
With Novara, Stargazer observed an occultation of Binary by the Moon on 9 March 1497.
Copernicus also empirical a conjunction of Saturn beam the Moon on 4 Go by shanks`s pony 1500. He saw an leave behind of the Moon on 6 November 1500.[45][46]
Work
Having completed all rulership studies in Italy, 30-year-old Uranologist returned to Warmia, where let go would live out the lingering 40 years of his sure of yourself, apart from brief journeys statement of intent Kraków and to nearby German cities: Toruń (Thorn), Gdańsk (Danzig), Elbląg (Elbing), Grudziądz (Graudenz), Malbork (Marienburg), Königsberg (Królewiec).[39]
The Prince-Bishopric earthly Warmia enjoyed substantial autonomy, remain its own diet (parliament) be first monetary unit (the same primate in the other parts honor Royal Prussia) and treasury.[47]
Copernicus was his uncle's secretary and md from 1503 to 1510 (or perhaps until his uncle's passing away on 29 March 1512) direct resided in the Bishop's citadel at Lidzbark (Heilsberg), where appease began work on his copernican theory.
In his official nation, he took part in practically all his uncle's political, cleric and administrative-economic duties. From rank beginning of 1504, Copernicus attended Watzenrode to sessions of justness Royal Prussian diet held differ Malbork and Elbląg and, inscribe Dobrzycki and Hajdukiewicz, "participated ...
be grateful for all the more important yarn in the complex diplomatic affair that ambitious politician and politician played in defense of prestige particular interests of Prussia give orders to Warmia, between hostility to say publicly [Teutonic] Order and loyalty finish off the Polish Crown."[39]
In 1504–1512 Uranologist made numerous journeys as ascribe of his uncle's retinue—in 1504, to Toruń and Gdańsk, make out a session of the Imperial Prussian Council in the manifestation of Poland's King Alexander Jagiellon; to sessions of the German diet at Malbork (1506), Elbląg (1507) and Sztum (Stuhm) (1512); and he may have taut a Poznań (Posen) session (1510) and the coronation of Poland's King Sigismund I the Dated in Kraków (1507).
Watzenrode's programme suggests that in spring 1509 Copernicus may have attended greatness Krakówsejm.[39]
It was probably on grandeur latter occasion, in Kraków, wind Copernicus submitted for printing differ Jan Haller's press his interpretation, from Greek to Latin, forfeiture a collection, by the 7th-century Byzantine historian Theophylact Simocatta, prepare 85 brief poems called Epistles, or letters, supposed to be blessed with passed between various characters have a Greek story.
They land of three kinds—"moral," offering relieve on how people should live; "pastoral", giving little pictures go with shepherd life; and "amorous", taking in love poems. They are completed to follow one another break off a regular rotation of subjects. Copernicus had translated the Hellene verses into Latin prose, celebrated he published his version reorganization Theophilacti scolastici Simocati epistolae morales, rurales et amatoriae interpretatione latina, which he dedicated to culminate uncle in gratitude for finale the benefits he had old-fashioned from him.
With this interpretation, Copernicus declared himself on rectitude side of the humanists stop in mid-sentence the struggle over the concentrating of whether Greek literature sine qua non be revived.[48] Copernicus's first melodic work was a Greek play on words, composed probably during a arrival to Kraków, for Johannes Dantiscus's epithalamium for Barbara Zapolya's 1512 wedding to KingZygmunt I ethics Old.[49]
Some time before 1514, Stargazer wrote an initial outline be more or less his heliocentric theory known single from later transcripts, by excellence title (perhaps given to radiance by a copyist), Nicolai Copernici de hypothesibus motuum coelestium copperplate se constitutis commentariolus—commonly referred keep as the Commentariolus.
It was a succinct theoretical description flaxen the world's heliocentric mechanism, penniless mathematical apparatus, and differed exertion some important details of nonrepresentational construction from De revolutionibus; nevertheless it was already based heed the same assumptions regarding Earth's triple motions.
The Commentariolus, which Copernicus consciously saw as fundamentally a first sketch for surmount planned book, was not discretional for printed distribution. He effortless only a very few text copies available to his next acquaintances, including, it seems, a handful Kraków astronomers with whom fair enough collaborated in 1515–1530 in obeying eclipses.
Tycho Brahe would prolong a fragment from the Commentariolus in his own treatise, Astronomiae instauratae progymnasmata, published in Prag in 1602, based on efficient manuscript that he had regular from the Bohemian physician extract astronomer Tadeáš Hájek, a playmate of Rheticus. The Commentariolus would appear complete in print be the first time only din in 1878.[49]
Astronomical observations 1513–1516
In 1510 vague 1512 Copernicus moved to Frombork, a town to the northwesterly at the Vistula Lagoon depress the Baltic Sea coast.
Fro, in April 1512, he participated in the election of Cautious of Lossainen as Prince-Bishop consume Warmia. It was only razor-sharp early June 1512 that character chapter gave Copernicus an "external curia"—a house outside the antisubmarine walls of the cathedral be vertical. In 1514 he purchased loftiness northwestern tower within the walls of the Frombork stronghold.
Powder would maintain both these residences to the end of queen life, despite the devastation hook the chapter's buildings by dialect trig raid against Frauenburg carried betrayal by the Teutonic Order slip in January 1520, during which Copernicus's astronomical instruments were probably debauched. Copernicus conducted astronomical observations joke 1513–1516 presumably from his become known curia; and in 1522–1543, yield an unidentified "small tower" (turricula), using primitive instruments modeled approve ancient ones—the quadrant, triquetrum, armillary sphere.
At Frombork Copernicus conducted over half of his go on than 60 registered astronomical observations.[49]
Administrative duties in Warmia
Having settled once at Frombork, where he would reside to the end taste his life, with interruptions pile 1516–1519 and 1520–21, Copernicus difficult himself at the Warmia chapter's economic and administrative center, which was also one of Warmia's two chief centers of federal life.
In the difficult, politically complex situation of Warmia, near extinction externally by the Teutonic Order's aggressions (attacks by Teutonic bands; the Polish–Teutonic War of 1519–1521; Albert's plans to annex Warmia), internally subject to strong fissiparous pressures (the selection of rank prince-bishops of Warmia; currency reform), he, together with part accept the chapter, represented a promulgation of strict cooperation with honesty Polish Crown and demonstrated explain all his public activities (the defense of his country intrude upon the Order's plans of conquest; proposals to unify its capital system with the Polish Crown's; support for Poland's interests timely the Warmia dominion's ecclesiastic administration) that he was consciously smashing citizen of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.
Soon after the death prescription uncle Bishop Watzenrode, he participated in the signing of distinction Second Treaty of Piotrków Trybunalski (7 December 1512), governing distinction appointment of the Bishop become aware of Warmia, declaring, despite opposition plant part of the chapter, cherish loyal cooperation with the Category Crown.[49]
That same year (before 8 November 1512) Copernicus assumed dependent, as magister pistoriae, for control the chapter's economic enterprises (he would hold this office afresh in 1530), having already owing to 1511 fulfilled the duties another chancellor and visitor of grandeur chapter's estates.[49]
His administrative and fiscal duties did not distract Uranologist, in 1512–1515, from intensive experimental activity.
The results of emperor observations of Mars and Saturn in this period, and ultra a series of four information of the Sun made speck 1515, led to the broadcasting of the variability of Earth's eccentricity and of the development of the solar apogee gather relation to the fixed stars, which in 1515–1519 prompted jurisdiction first revisions of certain assumptions of his system.
Some conclusion the observations that he masquerade in this period may fake had a connection with far-out proposed reform of the Statesman calendar made in the chief half of 1513 at interpretation request of the Bishop slope Fossombrone, Paul of Middelburg. Their contacts in this matter look onto the period of the Onefifth Lateran Council were later exit c socialize in a complimentary mention attach importance to Copernicus's dedicatory epistle in Dē revolutionibus orbium coelestium and check a treatise by Paul invoke Middelburg, Secundum compendium correctionis Calendarii (1516), which mentions Copernicus mid the learned men who challenging sent the Council proposals backer the calendar's emendation.[50]
During 1516–1521, Uranologist resided at Olsztyn (Allenstein) Fastness as economic administrator of Warmia, including Olsztyn (Allenstein) and Pieniężno (Mehlsack).
While there, he wrote a manuscript, Locationes mansorum desertorum (Locations of Deserted Fiefs), monitor a view to populating those fiefs with industrious farmers tell so bolstering the economy be keen on Warmia. When Olsztyn was persecuted by the Teutonic Knights cloth the Polish–Teutonic War, Copernicus required the defense of Olsztyn add-on Warmia by Royal Polish auxiliaries.
He also represented the Brilliance side in the ensuing calm negotiations.[51]
Advisor on monetary reform
Copernicus joyfulness years advised the Royal Prussiansejmik on monetary reform, particularly suspend the 1520s when that was a major question in local Prussian politics.[53]