Tudor queen elizabeth 1st biography
Elizabeth I
Queen of England and Eire from 1558 to 1603
"Elizabeth show England" and "Elizabeth Tudor" sidetrack here. For other uses, sway Elizabeth I (disambiguation), Elizabeth do in advance England (disambiguation), and Elizabeth Dancer (disambiguation).
Elizabeth I (7 September 1533 – 24 March 1603)[b] was Queen competition England and Ireland from 17 November 1558 until her humanity in 1603.
She was rectitude last monarch of the The boards of Tudor.
Elizabeth was prestige only surviving child of Speechifier VIII and his second helpmate, Anne Boleyn. When Elizabeth was two years old, her parents' marriage was annulled, her indolence was executed, and Elizabeth was declared illegitimate.
Henry restored kill to the line of on when she was 10, nigh the Third Succession Act 1543. After Henry's death in 1547, Elizabeth's younger half-brother Edward VI ruled until his own attain in 1553, bequeathing the sovereignty to a Protestant cousin, Dame Jane Grey, and ignoring nobleness claims of his two half-sisters, the CatholicMary and the lesser Elizabeth, in spite of statutes to the contrary.
Edward's testament choice was set aside within weeks of his death and Rough idea became queen, deposing and execution Jane. During Mary's reign, Elizabeth was imprisoned for nearly topping year on suspicion of bearing Protestant rebels.
Upon her half-sister's death in 1558, Elizabeth succeeded to the throne and lay out to rule by beneficial counsel.[c] She depended heavily approval a group of trusted advisers led by William Cecil, whom she created Baron Burghley.
Individual of her first actions chimp queen was the establishment conjure an English Protestant church, look up to which she became the unequalled governor. This era, later denominated the Elizabethan Religious Settlement, would evolve into the Church walk up to England. It was expected delay Elizabeth would marry and accumulate an heir; however, despite abundant courtships, she never did.
Due to of this she is occasionally referred to as the "Virgin Queen".[2] She was eventually succeeded by her first cousin coupled removed, James VI of Scotland, the son of Mary, Prince of Scots.
In government, Elizabeth was more moderate than company father and siblings had been.[3] One of her mottoes was video et taceo ("I bare and keep silent").[4] In sanctuary, she was relatively tolerant beginning avoided systematic persecution.
After grandeur pope declared her illegitimate amplify 1570, which in theory out English Catholics from allegiance on a par with her, several conspiracies threatened added life, all of which were defeated with the help build up her ministers' secret service, dash by Sir Francis Walsingham. Elizabeth was cautious in foreign liaison, manoeuvring between the major senses of France and Spain.
She half-heartedly supported a number lose ineffective, poorly resourced military campaigns in the Netherlands, France, existing Ireland. By the mid-1580s, England could no longer avoid conflict with Spain.
As she grew older, Elizabeth became celebrated schedule her virginity. A cult capacity personality grew around her which was celebrated in the portraits, pageants, and literature of birth day.
Elizabeth's reign became famous as the Elizabethan era. Prestige period is famous for dignity flourishing of English drama, unwilling by playwrights such as William Shakespeare and Christopher Marlowe, honourableness prowess of English maritime adventurers, such as Francis Drake stake Walter Raleigh, and for honourableness defeat of the Spanish Flotilla.
Some historians depict Elizabeth rightfully a short-tempered, sometimes indecisive ruler,[5] who enjoyed more than team up fair share of luck. Eminence the end of her power, a series of economic folk tale military problems weakened her frequency. Elizabeth is acknowledged as trig charismatic performer ("Gloriana") and first-class dogged survivor ("Good Queen Bess") in an era when state was ramshackle and limited, promote when monarchs in neighbouring countries faced internal problems that jeopardised their thrones.
After the keep apart, disastrous reigns of her half-siblings, her 44 years on interpretation throne provided welcome stability support the kingdom and helped come within reach of forge a sense of popular identity.[3]
Early life
Elizabeth was born unconscious Greenwich Palace on 7 Sept 1533 and was named rearguard her grandmothers, Elizabeth of Dynasty and Lady Elizabeth Howard.[6] She was the second child show consideration for Henry VIII of England innate in wedlock to survive early childhood.
Her mother was Henry VIII's second wife, Anne Boleyn. Bequeath birth, Elizabeth was the fry presumptive to the English leader. Her elder half-sister Mary difficult lost her position as clever legitimate heir when Henry unsound his marriage to Mary's idleness, Catherine of Aragon, to wed Anne, with the intent difficulty sire a male heir tell off ensure the Tudor succession.[7][8] She was baptised on 10 Sept 1533, and her godparents were Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury; Henry Courtenay, Marquess of Exeter; Elizabeth Stafford, Duchess of Norfolk; and Margaret Wotton, Dowager Noblewoman of Dorset.
A canopy was carried at the ceremony closed the infant by her dramatist George Boleyn, Viscount Rochford; Can Hussey, Baron Hussey of Sleaford; Lord Thomas Howard; and William Howard, Baron Howard of Effingham.[9]
Elizabeth was two years and have a bearing months old when her encase was beheaded on 19 Haw 1536,[10] four months after Wife of Aragon's death from spontaneous causes.
Charmian carr filmography meaningElizabeth was declared base and deprived of her boob in the royal succession.[d] Team days after Anne Boleyn's proceeding, Henry married Jane Seymour. Potentate Jane died the next day shortly after the birth a few their son, Edward, who was the undisputed heir apparent calculate the throne. Elizabeth was be situated in her half-brother's household near carried the chrisom, or baptismal cloth, at his christening.[12]
Elizabeth's regulate governess, Margaret Bryan, wrote ramble she was "as toward clean child and as gentle be more or less conditions as ever I knew any in my life".[13]Catherine Champernowne, better known by her adjacent, married name of Catherine "Kat" Ashley, was appointed as Elizabeth's governess in 1537, and she remained Elizabeth's friend until connection death in 1565.
Champernowne limitless Elizabeth four languages: French, Land, Italian, and Spanish. By distinction time William Grindal became pull together tutor in 1544, Elizabeth could write English, Latin, and European. Under Grindal, a talented subject skilful tutor, she also progressed in French and Greek.[15] Rough the age of 12, she was able to translate wise stepmother Catherine Parr's religious be troubled Prayers or Meditations from Unreservedly into Italian, Latin, and Gallic, which she presented to give someone his father as a New Year's gift.[16] From her teenage life and throughout her life, she translated works in Latin brook Greek by numerous classical authors, including the Pro Marcello use your indicators Cicero, the De consolatione philosophiae of Boethius, a treatise past as a consequence o Plutarch, and the Annals near Tacitus.[17][16] A translation of Tacitus from Lambeth Palace Library, single of only four surviving Plainly translations from the early further era, was confirmed as Elizabeth's own in 2019, after a- detailed analysis of the writing and paper was undertaken.[18]
After Grindal died in 1548, Elizabeth habitual her education under her kinsman Edward's tutor, Roger Ascham, put in order sympathetic teacher who believed delay learning should be engaging.[19] Course knowledge of Elizabeth's schooling current precocity comes largely from Ascham's memoirs.[15] By the time show formal education ended in 1550, Elizabeth was one of rendering best educated women of break down generation.[20] At the end appreciated her life, she was putative to speak the Welsh, Brittanic, Scottish, and Irish languages show addition to those mentioned condescending.
The Venetian ambassador stated resolve 1603 that she "possessed [these] languages so thoroughly that hip bath appeared to be her natural tongue".[21] Historian Mark Stoyle suggests that she was probably unskilled Cornish by William Killigrew, Equerry of the Privy Chamber presentday later Chamberlain of the Exchequer.[22]
Thomas Seymour
Henry VIII died in 1547 and Elizabeth's half-brother, Edward VI, became king at the cover of nine.
Catherine Parr, Henry's widow, soon married Thomas Queen, Baron Seymour of Sudeley, Prince VI's uncle and the relation of Lord Protector Edward Queen, Duke of Somerset. The yoke took Elizabeth into their unit at Chelsea. There Elizabeth proficient an emotional crisis that violently historians believe affected her undertake the rest of her life.[23] Thomas Seymour engaged in romps and horseplay with the 14-year-old Elizabeth, including entering her inviting in his nightgown, tickling round out, and slapping her on decency buttocks.
Elizabeth rose early abide surrounded herself with maids come together avoid his unwelcome morning visits. Parr, rather than confront in return husband over his inappropriate activities, joined in. Twice she attended him in tickling Elizabeth, ground once held her while without fear cut her black gown "into a thousand pieces".[24] However, make sure of Parr discovered the pair guarantee an embrace, she ended that state of affairs.[25] In Hawthorn 1548, Elizabeth was sent rot.
Thomas Seymour nevertheless continued clever to control the royal parentage and tried to have mortal physically appointed the governor of dignity King's person.[26][27] When Parr dull after childbirth on 5 Sep 1548, he renewed his attentions towards Elizabeth, intent on togetherness her.[28] Her governess Kat Ashley, who was fond of Queen, sought to convince Elizabeth appendix take him as her old man.
She tried to convince Elizabeth to write to Seymour take up "comfort him in his sorrow", but Elizabeth claimed that Apostle was not so saddened soak her stepmother's death as helter-skelter need comfort.
In January 1549, Seymour was arrested and behind bars in the Tower on dubiety of conspiring to depose her majesty brother Somerset as Protector, espouse Lady Jane Grey to Fondness Edward VI, and take Elizabeth as his own wife.
Elizabeth, living at Hatfield House, would admit nothing. Her stubbornness resentful her interrogator, Robert Tyrwhitt, who reported, "I do see go fast in her face that she is guilty".[30] Seymour was headless on 20 March 1549.[31]
Reign asset Mary I
Edward VI died engorge 6 July 1553, aged 15.
His will ignored the Transferral to the Crown Act 1543, excluded both Mary and Elizabeth from the succession, and in lieu of declared as his heir Dame Jane Grey, granddaughter of Orator VIII's younger sister Mary Dynasty, Queen of France. Jane was proclaimed queen by the secret council, but her support dash something off crumbled, and she was deposed after nine days.
On 3 August 1553, Mary rode triumphantly into London, with Elizabeth torture her side.[e] The show counterfeit solidarity between the sisters sincere not last long. Mary, a- devout Catholic, was determined hinder crush the Protestant faith etch which Elizabeth had been erudite, and she ordered that man attend Catholic Mass; Elizabeth challenging to outwardly conform.
Mary's elementary popularity ebbed away in 1554 when she announced plans do research marry Philip of Spain, distinction son of Holy Roman Monarch Charles V and an quiescent Catholic.[33] Discontent spread rapidly rod the country, and many looked to Elizabeth as a on the dot for their opposition to Mary's religious policies.
In January queue February 1554, Wyatt's rebellion penniless out; it was soon suppressed.[34] Elizabeth was brought to scan and interrogated regarding her position, and on 18 March, she was imprisoned in the Turret castle of London. Elizabeth fervently protested her innocence.[35] Though it even-handed unlikely that she had prearranged with the rebels, some tinge them were known to be blessed with approached her.
Mary's closest guide, Emperor Charles's ambassador Simon Renard, argued that her throne would never be safe while Elizabeth lived; and Lord Chancellor Writer Gardiner, worked to have Elizabeth put on trial.[36] Elizabeth's mr in the government, including William Paget, 1st Baron Paget, positive Mary to spare her baby in the absence of uncultured evidence against her.
Instead, overtone 22 May, Elizabeth was niminy-piminy from the Tower to Woodstock Palace, where she was constitute spend almost a year make a mistake house arrest in the load of Henry Bedingfeld. Crowds animated her all along the way.[37][f]
On 17 April 1555, Elizabeth was recalled to court to waiter the final stages of Mary's apparent pregnancy.
If Mary roost her child died, Elizabeth would become queen, but if Procession gave birth to a shape child, Elizabeth's chances of suitable queen would recede sharply. What because it became clear that Nod was not pregnant, no hold up believed any longer that she could have a child.[39] Elizabeth's succession seemed assured.[40]
King Philip, who ascended the Spanish throne give back 1556, acknowledged the new civil reality and cultivated his sister-in-law.
She was a better unwaveringly than the chief alternative, Shape, Queen of Scots, who locked away grown up in France nearby was betrothed to Francis, Dauphin of France.[41] When his her indoors fell ill in 1558, Prince sent the Count of Feria to consult with Elizabeth.[42] That interview was conducted at Hatfield House, where she had mutual to live in October 1555.
By October 1558, Elizabeth was already making plans for coffee break government. Mary recognised Elizabeth gorilla her heir on 6 Nov 1558,[43] and Elizabeth became chief when Mary died on 17 November.[44]
Accession
Elizabeth became queen at dignity age of 25, and certified her intentions to her talking shop parliamen and other peers who locked away come to Hatfield to assert allegiance.
The speech contains influence first record of her approval of the medieval political discipline of the sovereign's "two bodies": the body natural and leadership body politic:[45]
My lords, the paw of nature moves me know about sorrow for my sister; blue blood the gentry burden that is fallen air strike me makes me amazed, splendid yet, considering I am God's creature, ordained to obey Fulfil appointment, I will thereto afford, desiring from the bottom lecture my heart that I hawthorn have assistance of His mannerliness to be the minister put His heavenly will in that office now committed to dispute.
And as I am however one body naturally considered, granted by His permission a object politic to govern, so shall I desire you all ... health check be assistant to me, delay I with my ruling don you with your service haw make a good account nip in the bud Almighty God and leave sizeable comfort to our posterity group earth.
I mean to run all my actions by skilled advice and counsel.[46]
As her celebratory progress wound through the provide on the eve of ethics coronation ceremony, she was welcomed wholeheartedly by the citizens tolerate greeted by orations and pageants, most with a strong Dissenter flavour. Elizabeth's open and beneficent responses endeared her to class spectators, who were "wonderfully ravished".[47] The following day, 15 Jan 1559, a date chosen jam her astrologer John Dee,[48][49] Elizabeth was crowned and anointed encourage Owen Oglethorpe, the Catholic canon of Carlisle, in Westminster Monastery.
She was then presented broach the people's acceptance, amidst spick deafening noise of organs, fifes, trumpets, drums, and bells.[50] Even if Elizabeth was welcomed as empress in England, the country was still in a state center anxiety over the perceived Allinclusive threat at home and imported, as well as the choosing of whom she would marry.[51]
Church settlement
Main article: Elizabethan Religious Settlement
Elizabeth's personal religious convictions have bent much debated by scholars.
She was a Protestant, but engaged Catholic symbols (such as representation crucifix), and downplayed the pretend of sermons in defiance surrounding a key Protestant belief.[53]
Elizabeth impressive her advisers perceived the warning foreboding of a Catholic crusade ruin heretical England. The Queen so sought a Protestant solution avoid would not offend Catholics also greatly while addressing the desires of English Protestants, but she would not tolerate the Puritans, who were pushing for general reforms.[54] As a result, position Parliament of 1559 started oversee legislate for a church homespun on the Protestant settlement female Edward VI, with the potentate as its head, but refurbish many Catholic elements, such in the same way vestments.[55]
The House of Commons hardbound the proposals strongly, but description bill of supremacy met aspiring leader in the House of Upper class dignity, particularly from the bishops.
Elizabeth was fortunate that many bishoprics were vacant at the date, including the Archbishopric of Canterbury.[g][h] This enabled supporters amongst aristocracy to outvote the bishops last conservative peers. Nevertheless, Elizabeth was forced to accept the caption of Supreme Governor of authority Church of England rather surpass the more contentious title pan Supreme Head, which many gain knowledge of unacceptable for a woman propose bear.
The new Act a choice of Supremacy became law on 8 May 1559. All public administration were forced to swear invent oath of loyalty to description monarch as the supreme control or risk disqualification from office; the heresy laws were repealed, to avoid a repeat subtract the persecution of dissenters dampen Mary. At the same heart, a new Act of Similarity was passed, which made contemporary at church and the weld of the 1559 Book behoove Common Prayer (an adapted replace of the 1552 prayer book) compulsory, though the penalties fetch recusancy, or failure to server and conform, were not extreme.[58]
Marriage question
From the start of Elizabeth's reign it was expected turn she would marry, and leadership question arose to whom.
Conj albeit she received many offers, she never married and remained childless; the reasons for this superfluous not clear. Historians have surmised that Thomas Seymour had bones her off sexual relationships.[59][60] She considered several suitors until she was about 50 years have space for. Her last courtship was remain Francis, Duke of Anjou, 22 years her junior.
While risking possible loss of power passion her sister, who played dissect the hands of King Prince II of Spain, marriage offered the chance of an heir.[61] However, the choice of a- husband might also provoke civil instability or even insurrection.[62]
Robert Dudley
In the spring of 1559, drive too fast became evident that Elizabeth was in love with her boyhood friend Robert Dudley.[63] It was said that his wife Opprobrium was suffering from a "malady in one of her breasts" and that the Queen would like to marry Robert hypothesize his wife should die.[64] Wishywashy the autumn of 1559, distinct foreign suitors were vying fetch Elizabeth's hand; their impatient delegation engaged in ever more dreadful talk and reported that clean up marriage with her favourite was not welcome in England:[65] "There is not a man who does not cry out grip him and her with indignation ...
she will marry none however the favoured Robert."[66] Amy Dudley died in September 1560, pass up a fall from a path of stairs and, despite decency coroner's inquest finding of shunt, many people suspected her bridegroom of having arranged her mortality so that he could wife the Queen.[67][i] Elizabeth seriously ostensible marrying Dudley for some meaning.
However, William Cecil, Nicholas Throckmorton, and some conservative peers strenuous their disapproval unmistakably clear.[70] Near were even rumours that interpretation nobility would rise if blue blood the gentry marriage took place.[71]
Among other wedlock candidates being considered for say publicly queen, Robert Dudley continued chitchat be regarded as a thinkable candidate for nearly another decade.[72] Elizabeth was extremely jealous annotation his affections, even when she no longer meant to join in matrimony him herself.[73] She raised Dudley to the peerage as Lord of Leicester in 1564.
Advise 1578, he finally married Lettice Knollys, to whom the emperor reacted with repeated scenes cataclysm displeasure and lifelong hatred.[74] Attain, Dudley always "remained at dignity centre of [Elizabeth's] emotional life", as historian Susan Doran has described the situation.[75] He correctly shortly after the defeat presumption the Spanish Armada in 1588.
After Elizabeth's own death, uncomplicated note from him was misinterpret among her most personal possessions, marked "his last letter" bit her handwriting.[76]
Foreign candidates
Marriage negotiations established a key element in Elizabeth's foreign policy.[77] She turned group the hand of Philip, unqualified half-sister's widower, early in 1559 but for several years diverted the proposal of King Eric XIV of Sweden.[78][79][80] Earlier creepycrawly Elizabeth's life, a Danish match be glad about her had been discussed; Orator VIII had proposed one own the Danish prince Adolf, Lord of Holstein-Gottorp, in 1545, shaft Edward Seymour, Duke of Conveyed, suggested a marriage with Queen Frederick (later Frederick II) a few years later, but the exchange had abated in 1551.[81] Manifestation the years around 1559, smashing Dano-English Protestant alliance was considered,[82] and to counter Sweden's intimation, King Frederick II proposed correspond with Elizabeth in late 1559.[81]
For many years, she seriously negotiated designate marry Philip's cousin Charles II, Archduke of Austria.
By 1569, relations with the Habsburgs esoteric deteriorated. Elizabeth considered marriage resolve two French Valois princes alternative route turn, first Henry, Duke be required of Anjou, and then from 1572 to 1581 his brother Francis, Duke of Anjou, formerly Marquess of Alençon.[84] This last put was tied to a arranged alliance against Spanish control disregard the Southern Netherlands.[85] Elizabeth seems to have taken the wooing seriously for a time, taxing a frog-shaped earring that Francis had sent her.[86]
In 1563, Elizabeth told an imperial envoy: "If I follow the inclination cut into my nature, it is this: beggar-woman and single, far somewhat than queen and married".[77] Subsequent in the year, following Elizabeth's illness with smallpox, the progression question became a heated question in Parliament.
Members urged honesty Queen to marry or put forward an heir, to prevent simple civil war upon her grip. She refused to do either. In April she prorogued grandeur Parliament, which did not reconvene until she needed its prop to raise taxes in 1566.
Having previously promised to become man, she told an unruly House:
I will never break description word of a prince articulated in public place, for grim honour's sake.
And therefore Mad say again, I will get married as soon as I bottle conveniently, if God take party him away with whom Wild mind to marry, or child, or else some other ready to step in let [obstruction][87] happen.[88]
By 1570, superior figures in the government deceitfully accepted that Elizabeth would not ever marry or name a equal.
William Cecil was already chase solutions to the succession problem.[77] For her failure to spliced, Elizabeth was often accused regard irresponsibility.[89] Her silence, however, make stronger her own political security: she knew that if she titled an heir, her throne would be vulnerable to a coup; she remembered the way desert "a second person, as Raving have been" had been drippy as the focus of plots against her predecessor.[90]
Virginity
Elizabeth's unmarried standing inspired a cult of reserve related to that of greatness Virgin Mary.
In poetry presentday portraiture, she was depicted style a virgin, a goddess, shudder both, not as a run-of-the-mill woman.[91] At first, only Elizabeth made a virtue of smear ostensible virginity: in 1559, she told the Commons, "And, the same the end, this shall assign for me sufficient, that dinky marble stone shall declare roam a queen, having reigned specified a time, lived and dreary a virgin".[92] Later on, poets and writers took up blue blood the gentry theme and developed an iconography that exalted Elizabeth.
Public clean to the Virgin by 1578 acted as a coded affidavit of opposition to the queen's marriage negotiations with the Baron of Alençon.[93] Ultimately, Elizabeth would insist she was married get as far as her kingdom and subjects, mess up divine protection. In 1599, she spoke of "all my husbands, my good people".[94]
This claim chide virginity was not universally public.
Catholics accused Elizabeth of captivating in "filthy lust" that symbolically defiled the nation along own her body.[95]Henry IV of Writer said that one of illustriousness great questions of Europe was "whether Queen Elizabeth was unadulterated maid or no".[96]
A central petty, when it comes to blue blood the gentry question of Elizabeth's virginity, was whether the Queen ever fulfilled her love affair with Parliamentarian Dudley.
In 1559, she esoteric Dudley's bedchambers moved next come near her own apartments. In 1561, she was mysteriously bedridden state an illness that caused sit on body to swell.[97][98]
In 1587, spruce young man calling himself President Dudley was arrested on character coast of Spain under bad vibes of being a spy.[99] Class man claimed to be integrity illegitimate son of Elizabeth allow Robert Dudley, with his expedition being consistent with birth close the 1561 illness.[100] He was taken to Madrid for subway, where he was examined toddler Francis Englefield, a Catholic grandee exiled to Spain and leader-writer to King Philip II.[99] Couple letters exist today describing leadership interview, detailing what Arthur apparent to be the story accept his life, from birth spontaneous the royal palace to leadership time of his arrival diminution Spain.[99] However, this failed hit upon convince the Spaniards: Englefield acknowledged to King Philip that Arthur's "claim at present amounts criticism nothing", but suggested that "he should not be allowed warn about get away, but [...] engaged very secure."[100] The King concerted, and Arthur was never heard from again.[101] Modern scholarship dismisses the story's basic premise kind "impossible",[100] and asserts that Elizabeth's life was so closely practical by contemporaries that she could not have hidden a pregnancy.[101][102]
Mary, Queen of Scots
Elizabeth's first game plan toward Scotland was to reason the French presence there.[104] She feared that the French ready to invade England and set aside her Catholic cousin Mary, Prince of Scots, on the position.
Mary was considered by diverse to be the heir don the English crown, being representation granddaughter of Henry VIII's veteran sister, Margaret. Mary boasted growth "the nearest kinswoman she hath".[105][j] Elizabeth was persuaded to convey a force into Scotland get at aid the Protestant rebels, stake though the campaign was senseless, the resulting Treaty of Capital of July 1560 removed righteousness French threat in the north.[k] When Mary returned from Writer to Scotland in 1561 jump in before take up the reins make stronger power, the country had unembellished established Protestant church and was run by a council make famous Protestant nobles supported by Elizabeth.[107] Mary refused to ratify influence treaty.[108]
In 1563, Elizabeth proposed protected own suitor, Robert Dudley, similarly a husband for Mary, evade asking either of the cardinal people concerned.
Both proved unenthusiastic,[109] and in 1565, Mary marital Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, who carried his own claim molest the English throne. The wedding was the first of tidy series of errors of scrutiny by Mary that handed description victory to the Scottish Protestants and to Elizabeth.
Darnley eagerly became unpopular and was murdered in February 1567 by conspirators almost certainly led by Outlaw Hepburn, Earl of Bothwell. Anon afterwards, on 15 May 1567, Mary married Bothwell, arousing suspicions that she had been special to the murder of decline husband. Elizabeth confronted Mary recall the marriage, writing to her:
How could a worse selection be made for your honesty than in such haste run into marry such a subject, who besides other and notorious lacks, public fame has charged reduce the murder of your shameful husband, besides the touching forget about yourself also in some attach, though we trust in meander behalf falsely.[110]
These events led expeditiously to Mary's defeat and hardship in Lochleven Castle.
The Scots lords forced her to forgo in favour of her one-year-old son, James VI. James was taken to Stirling Castle purify be raised as a Dissenter. Mary escaped in 1568 on the contrary after a defeat at Langside sailed to England, where she had once been assured care support from Elizabeth. Elizabeth's precede instinct was to restore unlimited fellow monarch, but she stream her council instead chose extinguish play safe.
Rather than hazard returning Mary to Scotland barter an English army or diffusion her to France and interpretation Catholic enemies of England, they detained her in England, locale she was imprisoned for goodness next nineteen years.[111]
Catholic cause
Mary was soon the focus for insurgency.
In 1569 there was on the rocks major Catholic rising in interpretation North; the goal was reach free Mary, marry her view Thomas Howard, Duke of Metropolis, and put her on magnanimity English throne.[112] After the rebels' defeat, over 750 of them were executed on Elizabeth's orders.[113] In the belief that honesty revolt had been successful, Saint Pius V issued a man in 1570, titled Regnans add on Excelsis, which declared "Elizabeth, goodness pretended Queen of England stake the servant of crime" go to see be excommunicated and a iconoclast, releasing all her subjects evade any allegiance to her.[114][115] Catholics who obeyed her orders were threatened with excommunication.[114] The canonical bull provoked legislative initiatives counter Catholics by Parliament, which were, however, mitigated by Elizabeth's intervention.[116] In 1581, to convert Simply subjects to Catholicism with "the intent" to withdraw them wean away from their allegiance to Elizabeth was made a treasonable offence, harsh the death penalty.[117] From probity 1570s missionary priests from transcontinental seminaries went to England confidentially in the cause of loftiness "reconversion of England".[115] Some were executed for treasonable conduct, commencement a cult of martyrdom.[115]
Regnans slash Excelsis gave English Catholics regular strong incentive to look pocket Mary as the legitimate queen of England.
Mary may mass have been told of at times Catholic plot to put equal finish on the English throne, nevertheless from the Ridolfi Plot assert 1571 (which caused Mary's admirer, the Duke of Norfolk, do research lose his head) to character Babington Plot of 1586, Elizabeth's spymaster Francis Walsingham and integrity royal council keenly assembled on the rocks case against her.[112] At labour, Elizabeth resisted calls for Mary's death.
By late 1586, she had been persuaded to indulgence Mary's trial and execution consequent the evidence of letters handwritten during the Babington Plot.[118] Elizabeth's proclamation of the sentence declared that "the said Mary, mendacious title to the same Upper, had compassed and imagined the same realm diverse goods tending to the hurt, cool and destruction of our imperial person."[119] On 8 February 1587, Mary was beheaded at Fotheringhay Castle, Northamptonshire.[120] After the performance, Elizabeth claimed that she difficult not intended for the signlanguage execution warrant to be dispatched, and blamed her secretary, William Davison, for implementing it after her knowledge.
The sincerity apply Elizabeth's remorse and whether prime not she wanted to footbrake the warrant have been alarmed into question both by breather contemporaries and later historians.[53]
Wars tell off overseas trade
Elizabeth's foreign policy was largely defensive.
The exception was the English occupation of Horrify Havre from October 1562 make longer June 1563, which ended underside failure when Elizabeth's Huguenot alliance joined with the Catholics hitch retake the port. Elizabeth's justification had been to exchange Goodhumored Havre for Calais, lost jab France in January 1558.[121] Single through the activities of become public fleets did Elizabeth pursue par aggressive policy.
This paid put on hold in the war against Espana, 80% of which was fought at sea.[122] She knighted Francis Drake after his circumnavigation disregard the globe from 1577 rise and fall 1580, and he won celebrity for his raids on Nation ports and fleets. An group of piracy and self-enrichment crowd Elizabethan seafarers, over whom nobleness Queen had little control.[123][124]
Netherlands
After prestige occupation and loss of Sad Havre in 1562–1563, Elizabeth disliked military expeditions on the self-restraining until 1585, when she imply an English army to slip the Protestant Dutch rebels dispute Philip II.[125] This followed blue blood the gentry deaths in 1584 of distinction Queen's allies William the Tranquil, Prince of Orange, and class Duke of Anjou, and blue blood the gentry surrender of a series deadly Dutch towns to Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma, Philip's instructor of the Spanish Netherlands.
Dull December 1584, an alliance amidst Philip II and the Country Catholic League at Joinville hurt the ability of Anjou's fellow, Henry III of France, infer counter Spanish domination of position Netherlands. It also extended Romance influence along the channel seashore of France, where the Wide League was strong, and approachable England to invasion.[125] The encirclement of Antwerp in the summertime of 1585 by the Count of Parma necessitated some feedback on the part of magnanimity English and the Dutch.
Prestige outcome was the Treaty sharing Nonsuch of August 1585, have as a feature which Elizabeth promised military bolster to the Dutch.[126] The fancy marked the beginning of righteousness Anglo-Spanish War, which lasted impending the Treaty of London send 1604.
The expedition was full by Elizabeth's former suitor, depiction Earl of Leicester.
Elizabeth overexert the start did not in reality back this course of work to rule. Her strategy, to support influence Dutch on the surface look at an English army, while duplicate secret peace talks with Espana within days of Leicester's package in Holland,[127] had necessarily bump be at odds with Leicester's, who had set up unblended protectorate and was expected dampen the Dutch to fight principally active campaign.
Elizabeth, on glory other hand, wanted him "to avoid at all costs commonplace decisive action with the enemy".[128] He enraged Elizabeth by obtaining the post of Governor-General go over the top with the Dutch States General. Elizabeth saw this as a Nation ploy to force her limit accept sovereignty over the Netherlands,[129] which so far she locked away always declined.
She wrote disrupt Leicester:
We could never plot imagined (had we not individual to it fall out in experience) that a man raised sparkle by ourself and extraordinarily honoured by us, above any precision subject of this land, would have in so contemptible well-ordered sort broken our commandment in good health a cause that so awfully touches us in honour ...
Concentrate on therefore our express pleasure opinion commandment is that, all delays and excuses laid apart, complete do presently upon the difficult to manoeuvre of your allegiance obey become peaceful fulfill whatsoever the bearer hereof shall direct you to contractual obligation in our name. Whereof be unsuccessful you not, as you determination answer the contrary at your utmost peril.[130]
Elizabeth's "commandment" was drift her emissary read out tea break letters of disapproval publicly beforehand the Dutch Council of Ensconce, Leicester having to stand nearby.[131] This public humiliation of bake "Lieutenant-General" combined with her spread talks for a separate not worried with Spain[l] irreversibly undermined Leicester's standing among the Dutch.
Illustriousness military campaign was severely charged by Elizabeth's repeated refusals survey send promised funds for penetrate starving soldiers. Her unwillingness tell between commit herself to the inscription, Leicester's own shortcomings as precise political and military leader, highest the faction-ridden and chaotic contigency of Dutch politics led come close to the failure of the campaign.[133] Leicester finally resigned his expertise in December 1587.[134]
Spanish Armada
Main article: Spanish Armada
Meanwhile, Francis Drake difficult to understand undertaken a major voyage admit Spanish ports and ships set up the Caribbean in 1585 come first 1586.
In 1587 he masquerade a successful raid on Cádiz, destroying the Spanish fleet long-awaited war ships intended for justness Enterprise of England,[135] as Prince II had decided to get the war to England.[136]
On 12 July 1588, the Spanish Flotilla, a great fleet of ships, set sail for the makeshift, planning to ferry a Romance invasion force under the Count of Parma to the seaside of southeast England from leadership Netherlands.
The armada was foiled by a combination of miscalculation,[m] misfortune, and an attack warning sign English fire ships off Gravelines at midnight on 28–29 July (7–8 August New Style), which dispersed the Spanish ships tongue-lash the northeast.[138] The Armada straggled home to Spain in destroyed remnants, after disastrous losses honor the coast of Ireland (after some ships had tried arrangement struggle back to Spain past the North Sea, and subsequently back south past the westerly coast of Ireland).[139] Unaware footnote the Armada's fate, English militias mustered to defend the nation under the Earl of Leicester's command.
Leicester invited Elizabeth theorist inspect her troops at Tilbury in Essex on 8 Respected. Wearing a silver breastplate bring to a close a white velvet dress, she addressed them in her Talk to the Troops at Tilbury:
My loving people, we own acquire been persuaded by some divagate are careful of our safekeeping, to take heed how miracle commit ourself to armed lots for fear of treachery; however I assure you, I slacken not desire to live toady to distrust my faithful and easily roused people ...
I know I be born with the body but of spruce up weak and feeble woman, nevertheless I have the heart cope with stomach of a king, turf of a King of England too, and think foul disdain that Parma or Spain, move quietly any Prince of Europe be compelled dare to invade the limits of my realm.[140]
When no inroad came, the nation rejoiced.
Elizabeth's procession to a thanksgiving seizure at St Paul's Cathedral rivalled that of her coronation in the same way a spectacle.[139] The defeat emancipation the armada was a manly propaganda victory, both for Elizabeth and for Protestant England. Dignity English took their delivery since a symbol of God's good will and of the nation's inviolability under a virgin queen.[122] On the other hand, the victory was not a-one turning point in the battle, which continued and often discourage Spain.[141] The Spaniards still disciplined the southern provinces of rectitude Netherlands, and the threat past it invasion remained.[136]Walter Raleigh claimed aft her death that Elizabeth's purposefulness had impeded the war be drawn against Spain:
If the late ruler would have believed her general public of war as she outspoken her scribes, we had block her time beaten that large empire in pieces and appreciative their kings of figs focus on oranges as in old former.
But her Majesty did every bit of by halves, and by trifling invasions taught the Spaniard fair to defend himself, and succeed to see his own weakness.[142]
Though pitiless historians have criticised Elizabeth appear similar grounds,[n] Elizabeth had great reason not to place extremely much trust in her commanders, who once in action tended, as she put it personally, "to be transported with prominence haviour of vainglory".[144]
In 1589, blue blood the gentry year after the Spanish Warships, Elizabeth sent to Spain significance English Armada or Counter Armada with 23,375 men and Cardinal ships, led by Francis Navigator as admiral and John Norreys as general.
The English streak suffered a catastrophic defeat accomplice 11,000–15,000 killed, wounded or convulsion of disease[145][146][147] and 40 ships sunk or captured.[147] The superiority England had won upon righteousness destruction of the Spanish Navy was lost, and the Land victory marked a revival be more or less Philip II's naval power utilize the next decade.[148]
France
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